Political Struggle for the Renewal of the Ottoman Empire

The aim of this research is to analyze the relationship between nationalism and historical awareness. The method used in this study employs a literature review with specific steps. The findings of this research indicate that the downfall of the Ottoman Empire is the result of complex dynamics, involving the roles of intellectuals, government policies, the paradox of reforms, poor political language, and the influence of the Young Turks movement. From the era of Mahmud II to the collapse of the absolute rule of the Sultan, the shift in the foundational values of the state from Islam to nationalist identity reflects the challenges of a transformation that was not always successful. The incompatibility between reformists and the majority of the Muslim population, particularly in the political communication of the Sultan, becomes a key factor complicating the achievement of consensus. This research provides profound insights into the complexity of the history of the Ottoman Empire, emphasizing the importance of comprehensively understanding social, cultural, and political aspects in analyzing the decline of an empire. Consequently, a more comprehensive understanding of these events can offer valuable lessons in detailing and comprehending the dynamics that shape historical changes.


INTRODUCTION
The Middle Ages marked the zenith of the Ottoman Empire as it pushed back Western influence in Eastern Europe.From the conquest of Constantinople by Sultan Mehmed II (al-Fatih) in 1453 to its heyday in the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire emerged as the strongest and largest They all circumnavigated continents in response to the resource scarcity and to fulfill the desires of Church leaders to spread the gospel (Freely, 2019).
Although there is no such thing as too late for change, the long-term effects of this seem to have been inadequately communicated by the Ottoman government for self-reform.Not only was there a delay in modernizing the military and state administration, but there was also a tardiness in establishing the fundamental foundation of civilization, which is the dissemination of knowledge.there were 324 public libraries with a total of only 193,000 books (74,000 manuscripts, 49,000 printed books, and the rest not specified) (İnalcık & Pamuk, 2000).Meanwhile, in France, the country with the largest library collections in Europe, there were 7,298,000 books in 505 libraries by 1880 (Kuru, 2021).Young Ottoman in France (Judah, 2009).
This situation persisted until the birth of students under the secret political organization "The Young Turk," inspired by Giuseppe Mazzini's "Young Italy."They also faced severe communication issues.The effects of the extreme enforcement of The Young Turk Movement created a significant divide between the Turkish people and other ethnic groups within the Ottoman Empire (Salla, 1997). The

METHODS
This research adopts the literature review method with specific steps.The first stage involves formulating the main idea as the initial step.The main objective of this research is to conduct an analysis of the relationship between nationalism and historical awareness (Abdurrahman, 2011).
The next step involves searching for information that supports the topic, where the researcher seeks an understanding of historical awareness from various sources and its connection to nationalism (Boty et al., 2023;Bunari et al., 2023) reviews and notes before commencing the writing process (Abdurrahman, 2011).

Military Reform
The Ottoman Turkish society, in a social context, was divided into two distinct categories.The first group was divided based on religious communities or, in the Ottoman Turkish structure, referred to as "millet."Meanwhile, the second group was divided based on their relationship with political power.In this second group, the Ottoman Turkish society was further divided into two social classes: the military (askeri) or ruling class and the common people (raeya) (Finkel, 2006).
"Sultan Mahmud II, also known as Peter the Great of Turkey," a title given to him and often depicted (Pranger, 2004), is considered the starting point of serious intentions for change in governance.
Sultan Mahmud II assumed power at the age of 24.He learned valuable lessons during his joint rule with Sultan Selim III, realizing the need for change.However, initially, he had to comply with the will of the Janissaries.Mahmud II was patient and waited for the right moment to break free from the influence of the Janissaries (Hanioğlu, 2008).
The Janissaries, a well-trained military force responsible for securing the  (Hanioğlu, 2008).
Seeing this as the right moment for reform, Sultan Mahmud II realized that even the professionally trained military forces, the "Sipahi," could be pushed back by the Janissaries.Therefore, the Sultan employed demagogy among the population, who were already fed up with the excesses of the Janissaries.
Mahmud II then issued the Sacred Banner of Prophet Muhammad from the Sacred Trust, intending for everyone to believe in gathering under his banner and thus increasing opposition to the Janissaries (Finkel, 2006).Those present at the meeting agreed with the Grand Vizier and Mufti's opinion, allowing the suppression of those who resisted (Hanioğlu, 2008).Battles ensued, and many were sentenced in the Thessaloniki fortress (now the second-largest city in Greece).Around 100 Janissaries who fled drowned (Black, 2006).(Jelavich & Barbara, 1977).
In Ottoman politics in the Black Sea (Black, 2006).
The foundation of Ottoman reforms laid by the Sultan was not solely based on politics and the military.In the 1760s, regulations were issued prohibiting traders and craftsmen from wearing feathered turbans, a privilege reserved for the Sultan and his ministers.In 1792, women's overcoats were also considered too thin and transparent, leading to a ban on their use (Shaw & Shaw, 1977).Earlier, non-Muslim women were prohibited from wearing yellow shoes, a color reserved for Muslim women (Ash-Shallabi, 2011).
During Mahmud II's reign, these rules were abolished by standardizing the attire of all sectors, both officials and common people.Everyone was required to wear the fez, eliminating the distinctive identity of turbans and robes, except for religious figures.Women were also exempt from these new laws.
Nevertheless, the clothing style of Ottoman women transformed to resemble European fashion (Ash-Shallabi, 2011).

The Tanzimat Period
Sultan Suleiman I (1520-1566) laid the foundation for clothing laws, and this conception persisted for quite a long time.
For over 150 years, these laws remained unchanged until 1720 (Shaw & Shaw, 1977).During Mahmud II's era, all of these during that period due to the economic threat it posed (Bloom, 2001) (Brookes, 2008).

Maneuvers of Sultan Abdul Hamid II
It was a crisis period for the Ottoman Empire, both politically and economically.
The elites who initially saw Abdul Hamid II as suitable for reforms admired his The exile of prominent reformists created the perception that Sultan Abdul Hamid II was against reforms.However, the Sultan stated, "…It is not true that I reject everything that comes from Europe.
But, the hasty attitude comes from the devil, and conversely, from that attitude is acceptance through study and research" (Freely, 2012).Also, during his visits, Ottoman delegations met with Napoleon III of France, Queen Victoria of England, Leopold II of Belgium, Galium I of Germany, and Franz Joseph I of Austria.
He concluded that the West, as reflected in his later administration, has different morals than the East (Islam) and does not touch the substance of life (Hanioğlu, 2008).
During Sultan Abdul Hamid II's rule, there was a rapid increase in reforms in the field of medrese education.Benjamin C. Fortna commented on the period of Sultan Abdul Hamid II with the phrase, "Period of tremendous expansion in the number of state schools in the empire."(Finkel, 2006).Even though the financial condition was difficult due to the misguided policies of Sultan Abdul Aziz, this step was taken, as during Sultan Mahmud II's time, parents were less enthusiastic about sending their children to medrese.They were more interested in sending their children to learn practical skills in handcraft industries (Brookes, 2008).

Concerned about the potential dangers in
As opposition against the Sultan increased, movements outside the empire also formed an underground network.However, the decision in the congress leaned towards the more aggressive path to overthrow Sultan Abdul Hamid II (Rofii, 2019).
The Finally, the assembly decided to remove Sultan from power (Hanioğlu, 2008).
most severe imposition of ideas occurred during the Second Constitution era in 1908.The first general elections held during this period were full of lamentable sabotage, with only two nationalist-liberal and socialistyears, serves as a fitting case study in the modern era for governments overseeing a majority Muslim population in the pursuit of communication for change (Alizar & Muhammadi, 2019).
the Auspicious Incident of 1826, we can see that the Sultan was overly focused on appeasing the immediate population, particularly the entrenched Janissary base.Meanwhile, external influences, such as the destabilizing situation, were interpreted by Russia as a golden opportunity to extend its influence in the Balkans and strengthen control over the Black Sea.Furthermore, the Muslim population in the Balkans was jeopardized both in terms of life and property, as their protector had agreed to the Akkerman Convention.Muslims in the Balkans became targets of injustice from the local population, with long-term effects on laws were abolished.Mahmud II passed away in 1839, succeeded by Abdul Majid (1823-1861).During Abdul Majid's reign, reforms were intensified, and a clear inclination these actions indicated that the Sultan was indeed supportive of reform.One of the most significant moments felt by the Ottoman society during Abdul Majid's era was the Tanzimat period (Tanzimât Dönemi).The Sultan earned the title "Tanzimatçı" (Reformer) due to his two famous decrees, the "Gülhane Hatt-ı Şerif" (Imperial Edict) that abolished agricultural taxes, eliminated compulsory military service, and guaranteed the rights of all Ottoman citizens, whether Muslim or non-Muslim.The second decree, "Hatt-ı Hümâyûn" (Reform Edict), abolished the jizyah (tax on non-Muslims), standardized the education curriculum, and established legal equality (dzimni)(Brookes, 2008).The extreme nature of the reform projections, as they involved the abolition of certain Sharia provisions in the Sultan'the era of Ahmed III (1673-1736), when the government issued the first printed book, "Osmani," the scholars rejected the idea and opposed the translation of the Quran into local languages(Kuru, 2021).This event resulted in two clear consequences: first, the difficulty for the public to have a concise understanding of the Quran, and second, the closure of the possibility of dialectics between scholars and the general public.There was also a brief boycott of printing presses in Istanbul openness.Abdul Hamid II was also seen accompanying his uncle Abdul Aziz on his political visits to Western Europe.On the other hand, Abdul Hamid II leaned towards the conservative ulama, which was considered by the Young Ottoman Movement as a more conservative faction.After his enthronement, Sultan Abdul Hamid II promptly appointed Midhat Pasha as Grand Vizier due to his significant influence.Namik Kemal and Midhat Pasha, leaders of the Young Ottoman Movement, emerged as the most influential figures in the formation of the 1876 Constitution.(senators).The first Ottoman Turkish parliament convened for the first time on March 29, 1877.However, this assembly lasted only 10 months and 20 days, as Sultan Abdul Hamid II dissolved the parliament on February 13, 1878 (Ash-Shallabi, 2011).Midhat Pasha was exiled by Sultan Abdul Hamid II after five years in power by forming a special investigation team for the case of Sultan Abdul Aziz's murder, known as the "Yildiz Court."This court operated from June 27, 1881, to July 28 of the same year (Rofii, 2019).As a result, the Yildiz Court sentenced those involved in the case, including the death penalty for Muhammad Jalaluddin Pasha, Nauri Pasha, Bakbasyi Najib Bek (the guard of Sultan Abdul Aziz), and Midhat Pasha.When presented to the Sultan for confirmation of the convicted murderers of Abdul Aziz, the Sultan requested an appeal, changing the death sentence for the four perpetrators to life imprisonment(Rofii, 2019).Midhat Pasha was eventually exiled to the Thaif prison.However, later on, Sultan Abdul Hamid II was accused of being the mastermind behind Midhat Pasha's murder in Thaif after being choked by prison guards.In his diary, the Sultan wrote, "If it is true, then I am not involved, and I do not approve." Syria and the Arabian Peninsula, the Sultan initiated a major project called the "Hejaz Railway."Financed directly by the Sultan, with 50,000 gold coins and 100,000 gold coins from the State Treasury.This project aimed to expedite the pilgrimage from Damascus to Medina.Politically, the Sultan wanted to strengthen the sovereignty of the Arab nations to eliminate foreign aid.The Second Constitution of 1908 While the process of Pan-Islamism by Sultan Abdul Hamid was unfolding, there was an opposition that would later overthrow the Sultan.The Young Turk Movement emerged as the most powerful opposition to the Sultan.This movement was rooted in its predecessors Namik Kamal, Ziya Pasha, and Ali Suavi, who formed the secret organization The Young Ottoman in 1865.The leaders of The Young Ottoman fled when they were discovered by Ottoman intelligence.The Young Ottoman movement was influential and militant, but its most fatal failure was the lack of an educated middle class and the absence of economic power.Their high ideals about the constitution made it challenging for the Ottoman society to comprehend at the time (Ash-Shallabi, 2011).Over time, prominent figures of The Young Ottoman were exiled and many went into diaspora in Europe.This vacuum gave rise to a new and more aggressive movement.It began with four military medical college students in Istanbul who established the İttihad-ı Osmani Cemiyeti (Ottoman Union Society) with the goal of agitating for the restoration of a parliamentary regime.One of them was Ibrahim Temo, inspired by the "Young They attempted a coup in 1896, which failed, leading to the capture of many, and most prominent figures were exiled to Tripolitania.Afterward, the opposition movement within the empire stagnated for a considerable time.They could only revive when those in exile joined The Young Turk, centered in Paris under Ahmed Riza's leadership.The arrival of new personnel posed a challenge for Ahmed Riza as the leader of The Young Turk in Paris (Ash-Shallabi, 2011Ahmed Riza faced a crisis of distrust from The Young Turk members, a former Mulkiye lecturer and newspaper editor, Murad Bey, came to Paris in 1896 (Rofii, 2019).His thoughts, ideas, and political steps were deemed more acceptable by the majority of The Young Turk, and Murad Bey was chosen as the leader of the Committee of Union and Progress.In 1897, Murad Bey moved the headquarters of the Committee of Union and Progress to Geneva (Ash-Shallabi, 2011).Their membership was quite extreme, and the punishment for not obeying the Central Committee's orders or attempting to leave the Committee of Union and Progress was the death penalty (Whitehorn, 2015).After the Ottoman Empire's victory over Greece in 1897, Sultan Abdul Hamid used the prestige gained from the victory to force the exiled Young Turk network to return.Cevdet, Sükuti, and Mizancı Murat were accepted, leaving Ahmed Rıza in Paris as the leader of the exiled Committee of Union and Progress network (Shaw & Shaw, 1977).Those who succumbed lost their credibility, and Ahmed Riza returned to lead.In 1899, an Ottoman prince, Jalaluddin Pasha, who was still Sultan Abdul Hamid II's brother, came to Paris with his two sons, Sabahuddin and Luthfullah.His arrival provided impetus for the Young Turk Movement in Paris (Rofii, 2019).On February 4, 1902, the first congress of the Sultan's opposition was held at the home of Antoin Lefevre-Pontalis, a member of the Institute de France.Forty-seven delegates attended as the beginning of discussions for The Young Turk Movement, consolidated under the name Committee of Union and Progress.In the congress, they split into two factions because Sabahuddin supported the use of violence and foreign intervention to overthrow Sultan Abdul Hamid II, while Riza Ahmed, a theoretician, opposed it.
by Abdul Karim al-Khalil, and military officer Ali al-Mashri.There was also the New Arab movement formed in Paris in 1909 (Ash-Shallabi, 2011).Two years after the formation of the New weakens the ability to find objectivity in progress.We observe the inconsistency of the idea of the "Ottoman nation" proposed by Midhat Pasha, which transformed into the narrative of the "Turkish nation."change in the Ottoman Empire was only centered on the basic value of the state, which was initially Islamic but later sought to change into a nationalist identity by embracing Ottoman as the basis for nationhood.Meanwhile, the prolonged transition from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy made subsequent reformers reluctant to embrace Ottoman identity.Meanwhile, cultural changes and political reasoning were minimally socialized, and the reformers seemed unwilling to engage with local scholars deemed conservative, despite the fact that the majority of them were a significant force for initiating change and facing World War I. Change is an inevitable cycle.In the context of change, the transition from traditional to modern can be understood in terms of ascription (birth) to merit (achievement), low social mobility to high social mobility; estate society (lordship system) to class society; gemeinschaft (community) to gesellschaft (impersonal); and particularism to universalism.As outlined above, the core of this problem lies in the political communication of the Sultan, where a meeting point between reformers and the majority of Muslims was never found.Meanwhile, the world continues to change, and political behavior is still far from the word "change." Political Struggle for the Renewal of the Ottoman Empire, Indra MartianPermana, et.al,[243][244][245][246][247][248][249][250][251][252][253][254][255][256][257][258] DOI: 10.24127/hj.v12i1.9080 Political Struggle for the Renewal of the Ottoman Empire, Indra MartianPermana, et.al,[243][244][245][246][247][248][249][250][251][252][253][254][255][256][257][258] DOI: 10.24127/hj.v12i1.9080